DOUBLE-LENGTH ARTICLE
The Qing, or Pure, dynasty was established by the
semi-nomadic Manchus (Figure 106.1). Its emperors embraced a variety of forms
of Chinese art culture, both established and new. Kangxi (r. 1662-1722) and
Qianlong (r. 1736-95), in particular, were enthusiastic patrons of art, while
ruling over a populace of high literacy and innovation. There were three main
types of artists during the Qing: traditionalists, who were influenced by
landscape painters of the Ming; individualists, whose works were highly
personal and frequently expressed strong political beliefs; and courtiers,
officials and professionals, who were employed at the Manchu court and heavily
influenced by Western-style realism (Hearn, 2003a).
Figure 106.1: The Qing dynasty lasted from 1644 until 1912 CE.
Its predecessor was the Ming (1368-1644), and its successor the
Republic of China (1912-49). During this era, China had powerful emperors who
reigned for an average of twenty-seven years. Although much of this time was
prosperous, there were several natural disasters, invasions and a final rebellion,
bringing about its demise (The Qing Dynasty, 2014).
Copyright © 2014 theqingdynasty.com
Traditionalist art flourished under the early Qing
emperors. The works and ideas of prominent Ming artists such as Dong Qichang
(1555-1636) were used to inspire new generations of mainly landscape artists. A
constant theme was the comparison of art and nature. According to Dong: ‘If one
considers the wonders of nature, then painting cannot rival landscape. But if
one considers the wonders of brushwork, then landscape cannot equal painting
(Hearn, 2003b).’
Dong and his contemporaries influenced future
generations. Artists including Wang Shimin (1592-1680) established the
so-called Orthodox School, where the earlier landscape styles of the Song
(960-1279) were blended with the distinctive calligraphic brushwork of the Yuan
(1271-1368) (Hearn, 2003b). Wang was one of the Six Masters of the early Qing
era, all of whom specialized in shan shui
(mountain-water) paintings (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art, 2017). Such
works are not characterized simply by the artists’ visualizations of mountains
and water (Yee & Hsuing, 1964; Maeda, 1970), but instead of their thoughts
of nature (Sirén, 1956).
Wang Shimin was one the so-called ‘Four Wangs’.
The other three, namely Wang Jian (1598-1677), Wang Hui (1632-1717) and Wang
Yuanqi (1642-1715), along with Wu Li (1632-1718) and Yun Shouping (1633-90),
were the Six Masters of early Qing dynasty art. Wang Jian’s White Clouds over Xiao and Xiang (1668)
(Figure 106.2), for example, follows the similar painting method of Dong
Qichang’s shan shui style
(Encyclopedia of East Asian Art, 2017).
Figure 106.2: White
Clouds over Xiao and Xiang (1668) presently resides
in the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
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The Shiqu
baoji was a series of collections of many thousands of traditional
paintings and calligraphs (Liang, 2012). Many of these landscape images
emphasized the Confucian culture of cultivation and, consequently, were popular
until the nineteenth century (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art, 2017).
A new movement for Chinese art began during the
mid-Qing era. Artists who practised this were known as Individualists. One of
their most striking features was a freer style of brushwork (Encyclopedia of
East Asian Art, 2017).
Individualist painters depended on artistic
self-cultivation. Having escaped the aftermath of the chaotic Manchu conquest,
they did not have easy access to old masters’ works, so their styles were
necessarily personal, often inspired by nature (Hearn, 2003c). Their animosity
toward the new rulers was also evident in their works, which often contained
discreet messages of political criticism of the Manchus, or, alternatively, covert
loyalty to the deposed Ming dynasty (Princeton University Art Museum, 2004).
One of the most prominent individualists was Bada
Shanren (1626-1705), also known as Zhu Da. Having retreated to the mountains
and spent thirty years as a Buddhist monk, he returned to painting in 1680. His
style was wild and eccentric (Princeton University Art Museum, 2004), using ink
only sparingly in his calligraphic brushwork (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art,
2017).
Zhu Da’s work consisted mostly of the plants and
animals of his local environment. These included birds, insects, fish,
crustaceans, as well as a variety of colourful flowers (Princeton University Art
Museum, 2004). His careful study of wildlife, and rocks, was highly original at
the time (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art, 2017). It has been understood that
this deep and personal passion for depicting delicate lifeforms reflected Zhu
Da’s belief that life under the Qing dynasty was very fragile (Princeton
University Art Museum, 2004).
Many individualist styles evolved from specific
locations. Anhui, Nanjing and Yangzhou were especially influential (Princeton
University Art Museum, 2004). The Anhui Province was noted for its high-quality
paper and ink. The Yellow Mountains (Mount Huang), with their wild cliffs and
widespread pines, provided individualists with a welcome haven from Manchu
domination and were prominent in works by the Anhui school. Hong Ren (1610-63)
was one such artist (Hearn, 2003c).
Nanjing, having been a secondary capital during
the Ming era, became a sanctuary for individualists and Ming dynasty loyalists.
This was one of the first Chinese cities to become influenced by Western art.
For instance, the use of shading and perspective became apparent in paintings
of local landscapes. Arguably the most original of the so-called Eight Masters
of Nanjing was Gong Xian (1618–89), who used ink dots of varying density to
create effects of light and shade. This was probably a consequence of
increasing Western influence (Hearn, 2003c).
In Yangzhou, wealthy collectors financed several
individualist artists. Perhaps the most eminent was Shitao (1642-1707), whose
self-expression, particularly in calligraphy, inspired a later group of artists
known as the Yangzhou Eccentrics.
The third group of Qing scholars were courtiers
and professional artists who were employed by the Manchu imperial court
(Encyclopedia of East Asian Art, 2017). This group was responsible for
documentary, commemorative and large-scale decorative art, partly to promote
the regime of the reigning emperor. These artists were highly proficient in
terms of technique and were heavily influenced by the Song dynasty (Columbia
University, 2005).
Court art flourished under Emperor Kangxi. Kangxi
was a calligraphy expert who revered the calligraphic works and styles of Dong
Qichang (Princeton University Art Museum, 2004). He was also very shrewd,
employing the leading traditionalist Wang Hui to oversee the painting of the
famous Southern Inspection Tour
scrolls (Figure 106.3) (Columbia University, 2005).
Figure 106.3: In 1689, the highly-detailed, ink-and-wash work,
Emperor
Kangxi Inspecting the Dams of the Yellow River was painted by Wang Hui and others, and remains one of the most important
depictions of an iconic Qing state event (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art,
2017).
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Emperor Qianlong, Kangxi’s grandson, was also a
distinguished calligrapher and obtained a vast collection of such works. His
status as both a student and collector helped him to establish further his
legitimacy as a ruler (Princeton, 2004). During Emperor Qianlong’s reign, the
Qing dynasty reached its peak in terms of peace and prosperity throughout
China. Trade and farming flourished, enriching the nation and allowing the best
artists to be recruited to the court. Consequently, both the quality and
quantity of court art increased (Hearn, 2003d).
Despite the existence of the three main types of
artistic style during the Qing, it would be historically inaccurate to claim
that each was completely distinct. For example, many amateur individualists
became employed by the court and worked alongside professionals (Encyclopedia
of East Asian Art, 2017). The court also employed distinguished foreign artists.
Among these were Jesuit missionaries from Italy. One of the most influential
figures was Giuseppe Castiglione (1688-1766), who taught and worked alongside
Chinese court artists to produce works combining novel European styles with
traditional Chinese brushwork (Hearn, 2003d). Such new techniques included chiaroscuro, meaning the treatment of light
and shade, which was developed during the Italian Renaissance (Earls, 1987),
and linear perspective (Encyclopedia of East Asian Art, 2017).
From the beginning of the Qing to its end, several
styles of art evolved, blending both with each other and outside influences. In
turn, Chinese art was increasingly exported to Europe and beyond (Encyclopedia
of East Asian Art, 2017).
Copyright © 2017 Phoebe Spradbery
REFERENCES
Columbia
University. (2005). The Grandeur of Art
During the Qing. Retrieved from
Earls,
I. (1987). Renaissance Art: A Topical
Dictionary. London, United Kingdom: Greenwood Press.
Encyclopedia
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Art: Characteristics of Manchu Arts and Culture in China. Retrieved from
Hearn,
M.K. (2003a). The Qing Dynasty (1644–1911).
Retrieved from http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/qing_1/hd_qing_1.htm
Hearn,
M.K. (2003b). The Qing Dynasty
(1644–1911): The Traditionalists. Retrieved from
Hearn,
M.K. (2003c). The Qing Dynasty
(1644–1911): The Loyalists and Individualists. Retrieved from http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/qing_3/hd_qing_3.htm
Hearn,
M.K. (2003d). The Qing Dynasty
(1644–1911): The Courtiers, Officials and Professional Artists. Retrieved
from http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/qing_4/hd_qing_4.htm
Lessing
Images (2017). Emperor Kangxi (K'ang Hsi)
inspecting the dams of the Yellow River. From the scroll of Emperor Kangxi's
tour of inspection in the South. China; Qing dynasty, 1689. Wang Hui
(1632-1717), Yang Jin (ca.1644-1726) and Gu Fang (active ca. 1700). Painted on
silk, height: 68.5 cm. Inv. MA2460. Retrieved from https://www.lessingimages.com/viewimage.asp?i=03070326+&cr=4&cl=1
Liang,
S.Z. (2012). Shiqu Baoji. Nanchang,
China: Jiangxi Fine Arts Publishing House.
Maeda,
R.J. (1970). Two Twelfth Century Texts on
Chinese Painting. Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America: University
of Michigan, Center for Chinese Studies.
Princeton
University Art Museum. (2004). Qing
dynasty: 1644-1912. Retrieved from https://etcweb.princeton.edu/asianart/timeperiod_china.jsp?ctry=China&pd=Qing
Sirén,
O. (1956). Chinese Painting: Leading
Masters and Principles. New York, United States of America: Ronald Press.
Yee,
C., & Hsiung, S.I. (1964). The
Chinese eye: An interpretation of Chinese painting. Bloomington, Indiana,
United States of America: Indiana University Press.
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